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02 March 2011, Volume 31 Issue 2

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Molecular phylogenetics of cetaceans:an insight from 13 nuclear intron sequences

XIONG Ye,ZHOU Xuming,YANG Mei,ZHANG Pan,YANG Yunxia,YANG Guang

2011, 31(2):  117-124. 

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Sequences of 13 introns from 15 Cetartiodactyla species were determined to reveal the phylogeny of cetaceans
Our results support the monophyly of the traditionally accepted suborder Odontoceti (toothed whales),placing the dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima), a representative species of superfamily Physeteroidea,as sister to other toothed whales. Within the superfamily Delphinoidea,phylogenetic analyses identified a sister relationship between Delphinidae and Monodontidae+ Phocoenidae. A close relationship among four genera (Sousa, Tursiops, Stenella, and Delphinus) is strongly supported, which suggested the monophyly of the Sousa-Stenella-Tursiops-Delphinus complex. Neither the two Tursiops species (T. truncates and T. aduncus) nor the two Stenella species (S. coeruleoalba and S. attenuata) examined in present study clustered together, which strongly supported the paraphyly of these two genera as suggested in previous studies. Furthermore, the present Bayesian inference with a lognormal relaxed molecular clock provided divergence time for each clade, which is consistent with previous estimations based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data. Based on this study,we proposed that nuclear introns hold great promise for resolving persistent problems in cetacean phylogeny.

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PAE coding system-based ethogram of Taihangshan macaque (Macaca mulatta tcheliensis), Jiyuan, Henan Province,China

TIAN Jundong,WANG Zhenlong,LU Jiqi,GUO Xiangbao,LIU Jindong

2011, 31(2):  125-140. 

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From February 2009 to March 2010, by using focal animal sampling method,we recorded the processes, contents,and surrounding habitat of behaviors of free-ranging Taihangshan macaques (Macaca mulatta tcheliensis) in Henan Taihangshan Macaque National Nature Reserve (HTMNNR). We collected behavioral data and coded them following the “posture-act-environment” (PAE) coding system which concerns posture, act, environment, and ecological function of behaviors. The results showed that: 1) a total of 14 postures, 93 acts and 121 behaviors of Taihangshan macaques were recorded and identified; 2) based on ecological function of behaviors, all of the recorded behaviors were categoried into 13 groups including foraging, eliminate, thermo-regulatory, paring, mating, parental, agonistic, affiliative, aggregation ,communication, resting,locomotive, and miscellaneous behaviors; and 3) PAE ethogram of free-ranging Taihangshan macaques was successfully established following the PAE coding system.

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Social playing of golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) from 1 to 2 years old in the Mt Qinling of China

WANG Xiaowei,QI Xiaoguang,GUO Songtao,LI Yinhua,YANG Bin,REN Yi,LI Baoguo

2011, 31(2):  141-147. 

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Between March 2009 and May 2010,we studied social play behavior of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve on the northern slope of Qinling Mt. of China. Five juveniles (3♂, 2♀, born in 2008) were observed using focal animal sampling and instantaneous sampling with 5 min intervals. The results showed that preferred play partners of the focal subjects were juveniles, followed by infants, their mother, other adult females, and finally adult males. Chasing and wrestling were the most commonly exhibited play behaviors of focal subjects compared to approaching, biting and other play activities. Wrestling was more often adopted by male juveniles than by females, while females more often engaged in approach play behavior than males. No significant difference in sex or individual was found for the average frequency of play behaviors. In addition, frequency of behavior occurrence was not correlated with development stages. Social play in R. roxellana could function in enhancing physical fitness, fighting skills, social relationships, and cognition.

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Vigilance in Goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa):effect of seasons,sexes and group size

XIA Canjun,XU Wenxuan,YANG Weikang,David Blank,QIAO Jianfang,LIU Wei

2011, 31(2):  148-154. 

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Animals receive benefits from their gregarious habit. As part of a group, individuals spend less time having tobe vigilant, therefore more time on other behaviours, such as feeding. This phenomenon, called “group size effect”, is considered the most dominant factor in an animal’s demonstrated level of vigilance. However, in addition to group size, many other social and environmental factors also influence the degree of vigilance, including the season of the year and the sex of the individual. In order to examine vigilance behaviour of Goitred gazelles and to ascertain if a group size effect existed, the percentage of total time, vigilance duration, and vigilance frequency were recorded using the focal sampling method in the Kalamaili Mountain Nature Reserve during a two year period (2007 - 2009). According to our results, we found that seasonal factors which lead to the changes of biomass weren’t of substantial influence on a gazelle’s level of vigilance. Gazelles decreased their vigilance level with increasing of group size in any season, though this trend was not so significant except for males in fall and winter. Sexes have significant influence on the vigilance behaviour of Goitred gazelle. Females were more vigilant in summer (P < 0. 05), because of the presence of young, and males were more vigilant in winter (P <0. 05), because of their rut period. In spring and fall such differences between sexes were not significant (P >0.05). In comparison, the yearly breeding cycle was the most powerful factor, which significantly changed the degree of vigilance in females during birthing and males during rut.

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Comparisons of echolocation calls and wing morphology among six sympatric bat species

WEI Li,GAN Yuman,LI Zhouquan,LIN Zhihua,HONG Tiyu,ZHANG Libiao

2011, 31(2):  155-163. 

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During May to August 2006,we studied the echolocation calls and wing morphology of six sympatric species ofbats which belong to Hipposideridae and Vespertilionidae in Qixing Cave, Guilin City Hipposideros pratti produces short CF/ FM calls which mainly contain three harmonics, and has high wing loading,low aspect ratio and average wing tip shape index. H. armiger produces single CF/ FM calls, and has high wing loading, low aspect ratio and average wing tip shape index H. larvatus produces single CF/ FM calls, and has average wing loading, low aspect ratio and average wing tip shape index. Myotis siligorensis produces long bandwidth calls that are usually single FM sweep, being the smallest of these bat species with low wing loading, low aspect ratio and average wing tip shape index. M. ricketti produces single FM calls, and has average wing loading, low aspect ratio and high wing tip shape index. Nyctalus plancyi produces three harmonics short FM calls, and has high wing loading, average aspect ratio and low wing tip shape index. Most morphological and call parameters among these six bat species were significantly different (P < 0. 05) with One-Way ANOVA method. These results indicated that these six sympatric bat species were highly adapted to different foraging strategies and habitats which was also correlated with the significant differentiation of species-specific echolocation calls and external morphological characteristics. The present work demonstrated that niche partitioning occurred among these six bat species, which leads to decreases in the pressure of interspecies competition. Therefore, niche partitioning was the key mechanism for coexistence of these bat’s community.

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Effect of maternal density in field enclosures on sex organ index of F1 offspring in root voles (Microtus oeconomus)

YANG Le1,WU Yan,CAO Yifan,CHEN Fang,BIAN Jianghui,CHEN Zhi

2011, 31(2):  164-170. 

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We studied the effects of maternal stress induced by high density on an offspring sex organ index by experimentally altering population densities of root voles (Microtus oeconomus) in field enclosures. High-and low-density enclosed parental populations were established, from which we obtained offspring that were used to establish two low-density offspring populations, respectively, which consisted of 6 F1 voles of each sex originating from either high- or low-density parental populations, and a high-density offspring population, which consisted of 30 F1 voles of each sex from high-density parental populations. The remaining F1 individuals were transferred to cages in the laboratory. Adults of the high-density parental populations had higher corticosterone levels, an indication of physiological stress, than did those of the low-density parental populations. F1 voles from low-density parental populations, when in low-density F1 populations, displayed a greater sex organ index than did F1 voles from high-density parental populations in high-density F1 populations, but the corticosterone level was inverse. The sex organ index and corticosterone level did not differ between the F1 individuals from both low-and high-density parental populations,when in low-density F1 populations. In laboratory, a significant difference in testicle index was not observed between F1 offspring from high-density and low-density parental populations. The results suggest that maternal stress alone induced by high density, did not affect the sex organ index of their offspring, but prenatally stressed offspring displayed a reduced sex organ index when they were exposed to high density during the breeding period.

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Anti-fertility effect of quinestrol in male Mongolian gerbils (Merione sunguiculatus) and its reversibility

SHEN Wei,GUO Yongwang,SHI Dazhao,WANG Deng,HAI Shuzhen

2011, 31(2):  171-178. 

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In this study, Mongolian gerbils were randomly divided into multi-dose treated group (MDT group),one-dose treated group (ODT group)and control group (CK group) to explore effects of quinestrol on reproductive organs and reproduction. The epididymides, eminal vesicles and semen quality, fertility were assessed at 15,30,60 and 90 days after treatment. Histopathological changes of epididymides were observed by H. stain. Results showed that the coefficient of testes, pididymides,and seminal vesicles were significantly decreased (P < 0.01)at 15 or 30 days after treatment. The normal function of the sex gland was impaired, hich led to significant decrease in the density and amount of live spermatozoa and reproductive rates (P < 0. 01),as well as a significant increase of abnormal spermatozoa (P < 0.01) in both MDT group and ODT group. Compared with the ODT group, the damage for gerbil reproduction in MDT group was more severely at 15 or 30 days after treatment (P < 0. 01). After 60 days of treatment withdrawal, the sex gland in treated group was normalized except for gerbil epididymides in the MDT group, while semen quality and reproductive rates were still lower than those in the control group (P < 0.01). The physiological indicators were recovered by 90 days of treatment withdrawal. This indicates that quinestrol shows certain effects on reducing the fertility of male gerbil with a reversible effect after 90 days’treatment and multi-dose treatment has more effects to infertility compared with one-dose treatment.

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Limitations to the application of line transect surveying on cetaceans in Chinese waters and recommendations

ZHAO Xiujiang,WANG Ding

2011, 31(2):  179-184. 

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Line transect methods are widely used in the surveys of cetaceans worldwide. Based on a literature survey and on our own experiences, we reviewed possible application problems in survey design, field survey, and data analysis stages of such kinds of surveys in Chinese waters. Thus, for survey design, relevant recommendations on transect design were proposed. For field surveys, suggestions were made on observation platforms, observer configurations, observation methods, and recording methods. For data analysis, we proposed processing procedures on preliminary treatment of data and line transect analysis based on R programming platform and Distance program. We hope this paper would facilitate the normalization of line transect surveys in China.

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Primate infanticide and its adaptive significance

ZHANG Peng

2011, 31(2):  185-194. 

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Infanticide in the wild has been observed in natural populations of non-human primates. The aim of this paper is to review reports in 21 primate species of 69 cases, and to discuss the adaptive significance of this behavior. Most of infanticides are associated with adaptive male reproductive strategy, with following characteristics:(1)males killed infants unlikely to be sired by themselves;(2)the mother can be fertilized earlier than if the infant had lived; and (3)the infanticidal male has an increased probability of copulation with the females whose infants they had killed. Some cases of infanticides may unlikely to be related with male reproductive benefit, and could be explained by other hypotheses such as the by-product of male aggression hypothesis, elimination of future rival hypothesis, cannibalism hypothesis and social pathology hypothesis. Infanticide causes a major loss of reproductive output for the mother. Females developed social-counterstrategies against infanticide by males, including direct counter-aggression toward infanticidal males, keeping away from potential infanticidal males, sexual strategies that manipulate the paternities and paternity assessments of potential infanticidal and protective males, social association with protective males and containing multiple males in groups. These counterstrategies are sufficiently successful to make infanticide rare in most species, but the infanticide risk will not be eliminated, as long as costs of infanticide by males are lower than those of counter-infanticide efforts by females.

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Torpor in mammals:types,species and patterns


YANG Ming,WANG Dehua

2011, 31(2):  195-204. 

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Torpor (including hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor)in mammals is one of the most attractive physiological phenomena in life science. Some mammal species use torpor to survive harsh environments such as cold, food shortage and drought. Physiological and/ or ecological research into torpor of mammals has potential implications in biomedicine in situations such as trauma treatment, organ transplantation and spaceflight. This review briefly introduces several aspects of torpor in mammals:1) Types of torpor in mammals according to the season and duration of mammalian torpor, the source and storage form of the fuel used in torpor, and the signals initiating torpor. 2) The systematic distribution of the mammal species utilized torpors. 3)The general properties in body temperature and metabolic rate which occurr in hibernation and hibernation bouts of mammals in temperate and arctic zone, and in the tropics where the diurnal hibernacula temperatures fluctuate acutely. We also introduce the patterns of other kinds of torpor, such as daily torpor.

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Population density of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) in Tomur National Nature Reserve of Xinjiang,China


XU Feng,MA Ming,WU Yiqun

2011, 31(2):  205-210. 

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Tomur National Nature Reserve (TNNR) is located in northwestern Xinjiang near the border between China and Kyrgyzstan, and is one of the largest nature reserves associated with snow leopards (Panthera uncial) in China. We surveyed snow leopards from October 2004 to December 2005 to investigate their population density and number in TNNR. Using a sign survey and a prey availability survey, we estimated the snow leopard population density and compared the results with camera trap survey results in TNNR, and tried to find a less labor intensive and relatively accurate method to estimate snow leopard population density. By sign surveys, we recorded the snow leopard sign density about 8.63/ km. With this sign density, we estimated the snow leopard population density in TNNR was 2 - 5 /100km² with the total number of 47. 52 -118. 8 using Jackson’ method, and 1.99 – 3.47/100km² for population density and 47.28 – 82. 45 for total number using Formozov’s method. We estimated the population density of the main snow leopard prey species, ibex, in the TNNR was 270 /100km² . Using McCarthy’s methods, we estimated the snow leopard population density according to ibex density was 1. 59 – 3. 23 /100km² and thus the total number 37. 78 – 76. 46. Compared with the camera trap results which showed that the snow leopard population density was 2. 0 -3. 2/100km² ,we found Formozov’s sign survey and prey availability survey were relatively accurate for estimating snow leopard population density. In the absence of enough labor and effort, these methods are suggested for investigating snow leopard population density.

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Spatial synchrony in population dynamics of desert rodents

ZHANG Fushun,FU Heping,WU Xiaodong,YANG Zelong,YUAN Shuai,ZHANG Xiaodong

2011, 31(2):  211-218. 

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Population dynamics of six rodent species in Alxa desert was investigated by mark-and-recapture method between 2002 and 2009. The study was performed in three different kinds of disturbed habitat:prohibited-grazing area,rotational- grazing area and over-grazing area. The degree of spatial synchrony was determined with Pearson correlations on yearly and monthly levels. Here, single population data were compared within habitats according to the principle “each with each”. Only for the dominant species Meriones meridianus was strong spatial synchrony detected;here positive relationships emerged within years and months independent of habitat (P <0. 05). Additionally, both hamster species Cricetulus barabensis and Phodopus roborovskii showed a continuous spatial synchrony in monthly analyses (P < 0. 05) but not on the level of yearly data. Finally, the common species Allactaga sibirica, Dipus sagitta and Spermophilus alaschanicus exhibited only weak spatial synchrony which was concluded on the basis of single significant correlations but no homogeneous behavior on temporal scales or within types of habitat. Our results indicate that disturbance has a larger effect on spatial synchrony of common species than on the dominant species. The population of Meriones meridianus remained nearly unaffected by the degree of disturbance while species with lower population size like Spermophilus alaschanicus and Allactaga sibirica were widely influenced. It was probably a significant ecological tenet that dominant species have strong spatial synchrony while common species have weak spatial synchrony,and it was very important for balance and stability of the animal communities.