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08 March 2009, Volume 29 Issue 4

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Physiological ecology in small mammals and evolutionary theory

WANG Dehua,YANG Ming,LIU Quansheng,ZHANG Zhiqiang,ZHANG Xueying,CHI Qingsheng,XU Deli

2009, 29(4):  343-351. 

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The theme of animal physiological ecology (or ecological physiology)is the adaptation of animals to their environment.
Physiological ecologists usually use the physiological data to understand the ecological questions relevant to animals’ survival and reproduction,and try to interpret the way and reason of animal’s physiological adaptation and evolution.For nearly 70 years,evolutionary theory has great effect on the development of physiological ecology,and the findings of physiological ecology also make great contributions to the development of evolutionary biology. Here we focus on some aspects of physiological ecology of small mammals,namely body size and metabolism,digestive physiology,ecological immunology and hibernation (torpor),to briefly review some achievements and the implication of evolutionary theory.

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Physiological stress response and its ecological adaptability in mammals

BIAN Jianghui,WU Yan

2009, 29(4):  352-358. 

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Stress response is an evolved suite of physiological,hormonal and behavioral responses exhibited by individuals that are highly conserved across vertebrate taxa. Most of what is known about stress comes from the biomedical and neuroendocrinological research community. Although Hans Selye’s original work addressed how individuals adapt to stressor,many recent studies have mainly focused on negative effects of stress on fitness of individuals and diseases related aspects of stress. However,it is very difficult to imagine that stress has evolved simply to make animals sick over millions of years.
From the point of view of evolution,we summarizes the relationships between stress responses and reproductive strategies,as well as different coping styles when animals were exposed to stressors. We also analyze the adaptive roles of stress responses and the coping styles in mammals.

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Cultural evolution:universality in animal culture and uniqueness in human culture

WAN Meiting,SU Yanjie

2009, 29(4):  359-364. 

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In most time,culture was attributed to human exclusively. However,after some investigations of animals’cultural behaviors coming out,many researchers believe that culture can exist in animal populations. In the current review, we provided observation evidences about cultural phenomena of animals in wild,as well as experimental results about cognitive foundation of cultural behaviors in laboratory. Besides,we pointed out different ways between human and animal cultures, and explained the cause of the uniqueness of human culture.

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The origin and phylogenetics of Hainan Eld’s deer and implications for Eld’s deer conservation

ZHANG Qiong,ZENG Zhigao,SUN Lifeng,SONG Yanling

2009, 29(4):  365-371. 

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Eld’s deer (Cervus eldi),a highly endangered cervid,includes three subspecies (C. e. eldi,C. e. siamensis and C. e. thamin)that distribute in Southeast Asia and one separated population of C. e. siamensis occurs in Hainan Island of China named Hainan Eld’s deer. The endangered subspecies C. e. siamensis has been extinct in wild in Thailand over several decades. Recently,a conservation program has been launched in Thailand to establish wild population of C. e. siamensis from captive breeding deer in the zoo. Hainan Eld’s deer has been considered as supplement resource for the reestablish deer population. In this study,we analyzed variation in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)D-loop sequences of 35 Eld’s deer samples,including two Eld’s deer subspecies (C. e. siamensis and C. e. thamin)and Hainan Eld’s deer to address the following questions:(1) where did the Hainan Eld’s deer originate from;(2)the relationship between Hainan Eld’s deer and subspecies C. e. siamensis, and (3)the genetic diversity of Hainan Eld’s deer population. Four haplotypes were observed in all samples,all the samples of Hainan Eld’s deer shared an identical haplotype. We constructed phylogenetic trees by Maximum likelihood (ML),maximum parsimony (MP),Neighbour-Joining (NJ)and Bayesian method using the results of this study with sequences data provided by GenBank together. The Hainan Eld’s deer and C. e. siamensis were clustered together by MP and NJ method,however,
some genetic differentiation was detected between the Hainan Eld’s deer and C. e. siamensis. The average genetic distance is 0.026 between the Hainan Eld’s deer and C. e. siamensis. Our results suggest that Eld’s deer could distribute via land bridge from the South-easten Asian mainland to the Hainan Island during the Pleistocene (0. 69 Mya)when the sea level of Beibu Gulf seacoast went down in glacier age. Our results indicate a long-term historical isolation of Hainan Eld’s deer population from its original resource. Therefore,we do not recommend using Hainan Eld’s deer as supplement of C. e. siamensis. We recommend C. e. hainanus and C. e. siamensis should be both managed as evolutionarily significant units (ESUs).

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A preliminary analysis of genetic variation at three MHC loci of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis)

XU Shixia,ZHANG Pan,LI Shuzhen,ZHOU Kaiya,WEI Fuwen,YANG Guang

2009, 29(4):  372-381. 

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The major histocompatibility complex (MHC)consists of a group of closely linked genes that constitute the most important genetic component of the mammalian immune system. Exon 2 of three MHC loci,i. e. DQB and DRA of MHC class II,and class I,were chosen to preliminarily characterize the genetic variability of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis),an endangered species found in coastal China. The DRA,DQB and MHC-I loci each contained two, two,and seven alleles,respectively. Little sequence variation was detected at the DRA locus,relatively higher at the DQB, but considerable sequence variation at the MHC-I. Relatively high rates of non-synonymous (dN )vs. synonymous (dS ) substitution in the antigen binding sites (ABS)suggested balancing selection for maintaining polymorphisms at the MHC-I and DQB loci,although this result was not supported by data from the DRA locus. Phylogenetic reconstruction suggested that three MHC loci exon 2 sequences are not separated according to species,but are intermixed with other species,which was consistent with the trans-species evolution model of the MHC.

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Intraspecific behavioral variation in two populations of wild-caught Mandarin voles

YUAN Aifang,TAI Fadao,JIA Rui,ZHAI Peiyuan,ZENG Shuangyan,YU Peng,Hughie Broders

2009, 29(4):  382-388. 

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Abstract:Small mammals are likely to be able to accommodate to localized environmental shifts through the evolution of alternative behavioral strategies Intraspecific social systems may vary considerably among populations of a species as a result of changing environmental conditions.This study examined whether behavioral traits of socially monogamous mandarin voles (Microtus mandarinus),differed between two populations (Chengcun and Xinzheng)characterized by different environmental features,namely altitude and amount of precipitation.Body mass,anxiety,locomotor activity,and partner preference of the two populations were compared.Females in the Chengcun population were much heavier compared with males.However,Xinzheng males were significantly heavier than Chengcun males.Voles in the Chengcun population spent a significantly longer period of time in the central area of an open field compared with animals in the Xinzheng population,thereby demonstrating less anxiety in the Chengcun population.Results of a partner preference test show that the Xinzheng population displayed a strong preference for unfamiliar conspecifics of the opposite sex,while Chengcun males showed a significant preference for a familiar partner.In addition,Chengcun females stayed in the compartment of an unfamiliar vole for a significantly longer period of time relative to the time they spent in the compartment of familiar vole. However,Chengcun females attacked unfamiliar conspecifics more frequently and for a significantly longer period of time they than did the familiar partner.These data suggest that the two populations show significant differences in body weight,anxiety and partner preference due to geographical variation.

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Seasonal selection of sleeping sites in Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Gehuaqing in Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve

LI Dayong,REN Baoping2 ,Cyril C.Grueter,ZHOU Qihai,PENG Zhengsong,WEI Fuwen,LI Baoguo

2009, 29(4):  389-395. 

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Data on seasonal selection and use of sleeping sites of a group of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti)at Gehuaqing in Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve were collected from September 2005 to September 2006.Fifty-four sleeping sites were identified and were used 137 nights during the 13 months investigation. Altitudinal distributions of investigated sleeping sites were significantly seasonal for our study group. Sleeping sites mainly distributed at a belt of 3 200 -3 400 m (ASL)that confined in the conifer and broadleaf mixed forest. The monkeys slept at night at the highest average
elevation of 3 352 m in summer and at the lowest 3 082 m in spring.The monkeys preferred to stay at the west-faced and south-faced slopes at night,but avoided sleeping at north-faced slopes at night in summer and autumn. Some sleeping sites were repeatedly used when the group passed by and most sleeping sites were slept only once during the whole study period.Why the monkey group only repeated at some sleeping sites need further study.

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Reproduction characteristics of striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius) and Yangtze voles (Microtus fortis)in the polder of return farmland back into lake in Dongting Lake region

ZHANG Meiwen,WANG Yong,LI Bo,HUANG Huang,CHEN Jian,HAN Liliang

2009, 29(4):  396-405. 

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The reproductive characteristics of the striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius)and the Yangtze vole (Microtus fortis)were studied in an area being restored to lake in the Dongting Lake region. There were two main ways that farmland was restored. In Double Restoration Polders (DRP)both human habitation and agricultural activity were removed,while in Single Restoration Polders (SRP)only human habitations were removed but agricultural activities continued. The study was conducted in January,April,July and October from 2003 to 2006. Snap traps were used to get samples in all plots throughout
the census. Seven typical plots (seven different types of habitats for small mammals)were selected for investigation.Habitat 1 was hilly woodland around the lake which was covered by some shrub,arbor and herb,and M . fortis often immigrated to here from beach of lake during flood season. Habitat 2 and habitat 3 were normal farmland in protected polders. There was an M. fortis population migrating into habitat 3 during flood season,as there was a large stretch of beach outside of the dike near the habitat. Habitats 4 and 5 were SRP. Habitat 4 was still farm and the majority of the area of habitat 5 was planted in one kind of poplar (Populus spp. ). Habitat 6 was typical DRP,which was also covered by arbor. Habitat 7 was the beach of lake which has fully developed (matured beach),it was covered by Carex spp. and Polygonum hydropiper. The reproductive characteristics of Apodemus agrarius and Microtus fortis were compared among these habitats, and also compared with historical data we acquired during 1980 and 1990. The indices of reproduction of females were higher than those in the historical data for both A. agrarius,which was the dominant species in farmland,and for M. fortis, which was dominant species on beach of the lake. Both species were at a low point of multi-annual population fluctuations. Both species displayed no significant changes except for in DRP during the summer. In normal situations,the populations on the matured beach were forced to cross the dike and immigrate into the farmland or hillock when the beach was covered by water in flood season. However,there were some higher points and some abandoned dike in DRP which may not be covered by water and may became refugia for Microtus fortis and Apodemus agrarius. As a result,they did not across the dike,
but rather,just moved to the high level places. The population of the Microtus fortis which still stayed in DRP during summer (flood season)continued their reproductive peak,and the index of reproduction was 1.54 (I♀ =3. 36),whereas the population of M . fortis which was forced to migrate into farmland or hillocks almost stopped breeding and its fecundity became low. We expected that the Microtus fortis which didn’t undergo long distance migration would remain highly fecund in summer. On the other hand,Apodemus agrarius showed opposite responses in terms of reproduction. The historical data
showed that there were two breeding peaks in a year,the first peak was in spring and the other was in autumn. Although there was a relative decrease in summer,there still was some reproduction. However,the Apodemus agrarius in DRP almost stop breeding in the summer after migration from low level places to high level places,and the index of reproduction was only 0.03 (I♀ = 0.05). In addition to migration,competition between Microtus fortis and Apodemus agrarius in DRP might contribute to the drastic decrease in reproduction for Apodemus agrarius. The same phenomenon was found in the historical data from 1990. This study has shown different responses of A. agrarius and M. fortis in reproduction after migration in DRP in summer.

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Analysis of the small mammals community diversity in the Qiandao Lake region

ZHAO Qingyang,BAO Yixin,SUN Bo,ZHANG Longlong,HU Zhiyuan

2009, 29(4):  406-412. 

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During autumn 2007 and spring 2008,we surveyed 14 islands and 2 peninsulas,sampling with a total of 20 400 traps,for small mammals in Qiandao Lake,Zhejiang to determine their community diversity of mammals. The captured small mammals belonged to 13 species,9 genera,3 families and 2 orders,including 10 species of murids (Muridae),1 species of cricetid (Cricetida)and 2 species of soricids (Soricdae). The results showed that there were significant between-season differences in the diversity index,evenness index,and dominance index,and the preponderant species changed among the 14 islands as well. Through an analysis of stepwise linear regression on factors that could influence species diversity on islands such as area,distance to the nearest mainland,distance to the nearest bigger island and plant species richness,we discovered that only plant species richness had significant effect on the species richness of small mammals. The 16 sample sites were classified by the constituent proportion of species,with Xuyuan and 14 islands being the same category,and Yaojia the separated one. This result was also supported by the similarity index. Our conclusions are
(1)in Qiandao Lake,habitat fragmentation has resulted in a decline of ecosystem stability yielding dramatic seasonal changes in species diversity;(2)with the increase of island size,the species richness of the small mammals doesn’t always increase but shows a small island effect;(3)Xuyuan and 14 islands had been a continuous habitat before the reservoir was formed because the proportion of species within the communities was similar in these two regions.

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The growth and development of pen-raised roe deer fawns

LI Changsheng,ZHOU Xu,WANG Guiwu

2009, 29(4):  413-418. 

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The growth and development of 12 female roe deer (Capreiolus capreiolus mantschurivus)at late pregnancy stage and their 16 fawns were studied from April 2003 to October 2004.Observations,measures,and records were made on the following items:date of birth,change of fawn fur color,teeth growth,and body size and weight.Data were analyzed by Statistical Analysis Software (SPSS version13.0),and the growth-curve and fitting quation of body length and body weight were obtained.The results showed that the fawns were born mainly between mid of May and June.Fur color of fawns at birth was dark brown with irregular white spots which would disappear after first moult of the second year post-birth. The teeth patterns of roe deer were (0 0 3 0/ 4 0 3 0)× 2 =20 for the fawns and (0 1 3 3 /4 0 3 3)×2 = 34 for the adult respectively .The renewal of baby teeth started at age of 6 - 7months and ended at 8 - 9 months old,and the sequence of the tooth renewal started from central incisors,side incisors (upper and lower jaw),and then corner teeth.
The first hind molar appeared at age of 2 months and was fully at 3 - 4 months old. The second hind molar appeared at age of 6 - 7 months and was fully developed at 8 - 9 months old. The third hind molar initially appeared at age of 12 -13 months and was developed at 14 - 15 months old.The renewal of premolar began at 12 months of age and ended 14 months of age.The renewal order was:first premolar of the upper jaw and third premolar of the lower jaw,second premolar of the upper and lower jaw,then third premolar of the upper jaw and first premolar of the lower jaw.During the growing period, the growth rate of parts of body was examined,and the order of the growth from high to low was:body length,hip height,shoulder height,chest circumference and waist circumference.The relative curve equation of body length and body weight was Y = 63.1084 - 0.0070x +1.1e ^{- 6} x² - 3e ^{- 11} x³ .The growth and development of fawn could be divided in three periods:the fast growth,the slow growth and the peroid of the sex related development.

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Diet and seasonal changes in Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulata) at Seven-star Park,Guilin

ZHOU Qihai,TANG Huaxing,WEI Chunqiang,HUANG Chengming

2009, 29(4):  419-426. 

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Data on diet were collected from one group of Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)between November 2005 and October 2006 at Seven-star Park,Guilin,Guangxi Province,using the instantaneous scan sampling method. Our resultsindicated that 60 plant species were used as food by the macaques. The types of foods including 40 species of trees,12 species of shrubs,4 species of vines,and 4 species of herbs. They showed food preference,and 69,4% of the dietcame only from 10 species. Leaves constituted 41. 0% of the diet,comprising 16.7% young leaves and 24. 3% mature
leaves. Petiole and bark accounted for 27,3% and 21,8% respectively. Fruits,flowers and seeds contributed a small proportion of the diet,6,2% ,2,2% ,and 1,4% ,respectively. The macaques’diet varied according to season. In spring, the macaques fed predominantly on young leaves,petiole and bark. In summer,they increased the consumption of mature leaves and bark. The consumption of young leaves and mature leaves peaked in autumn,and the consumption of petiole and bark decreased significantly. In winter,the macaques increased significantly the consumption of petiole and bark,and
also consumed mature leaves in large quantity.

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Food habits of Kulan (Equus hemionus hemionus)in Kalamaili Mountain Nature Reserve,Xinjiang,China

XU Wenxuan,YANG Weikang,QIAO Jianfang

2009, 29(4):  427-431. 

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We quantified food habits of Kulan (Equus hemionus hemionus)at Kalamaili Mountain Nature Reserve (KNR) in northern Xinjiang,September 2006 - August 2007,using faecal microscopic methods. We identified 46 plant species in Kulan fecal samples,representing 17 families. Diets veried seasonally:in autumn,we documented 25 plant species from 8 families consumed by Kulans;in winter,Kulan consumed 13 plant species from 5 families;30 plant species from 14 families were used by Kulan in spring;and 26 plant species from 13 families were used by Kulan in summer. Chenopodiaceae and Gramineae were major foods of Kulan,comprising 64.7% - 84.1% of their diet,and forbs were very important to Kulan
in spring. Stipa glareosa was a major food of Kulan in spring and summer,of lesser but significant importance were Haloxylon ammodendron and Ceratoides latens. Similar to the summer,grasses like Stipa glareosa also played an important role in autumn,but shrubs became of more importance. In winter,Anabasis spp. and Reaumuria soongonica were the major food of Kulan. We believe that the Kulan in KNR occupied a grazer-mixed feeder continuum,and the change of the Kulan food habits through the year were due to the seasonal changes in plant nutrient quality and human interferences. Anabasis spp. ,which played a major role in winter,was utilized as a strategy for energy metabolism.

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Comparison on the biological characteristics of different functional partitions of the home range of Tibetan fox

LIU Qunxiu,WANG Xiaoming,WANG Zhenghuan

2009, 29(4):  432-438. 

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Home range studies have been focused on determining home range size and utilization distribution. However, most analysis have failed to take into account the activity and function of the animals while using their home ranges. We radio tracked 3 Tibetan foxes (Vulpes ferrilata)during April 2006,September - October 2006,March - May 2007,September - October 2007 and March - April 2008 in Dulan County,Qinghai Province,China. Based on the behaviors and spatial distributions of resource use,we partitioned home ranges into 4 main functional regions:core active region,core inactive
region,peripheral active region,and peripheral inactive region. We measured biological characteristics of each region. Core active regions were smaller than core inactive regions,and the peripheral active regions were larger than peripheral inactive regions. Plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae)densities in both the core active region and peripheral active region were significantly higher than those in counterpart inactive regions. Compared with core inactive regions,core active regions were more likely to be located in areas with gentle slopes,lower elevations and lower positions on slopes. Compared with peripheral inactive regions,lower slope positions were preferred by Tibetan foxes for peripheral active areas,whereas slope and elevation did not differ.

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The wing shape and echolocation calls of Ricketti’s big-footed bat (Myotis ricketti)

YE Jianping,ZHOU Shanyi,TAN Min,HONG Tiyu,ZHU Guangjian,ZHANG Libiao

2009, 29(4):  439-442. 

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From September to November 2007,we recorded and analyzed the echolocation calls of Ricketti’s big-footed bat (Myotis ricketti),in call-recording cages using BatSound software. We also calculated measurements of wing shape for these bats. We compared the parameters of echolocation calls and wing shape between males and females. The results showed that only the interpulse interval was significantly different between males (68.49 ± 10.99 ms) and females (83.61 ± 13.77 ms)(t-test:t = -2.72,P <0. 01),while the pulse duration (male:4.28 ± 0.34 ms,female:4.64 ±0. 97 ms),the dominant frequency(40. 31 ± 1.36 kHz,40.20 ± 1. 32 kHz),the max frequency (72.40 ± 2. 37 kHz, 72.20 ±2.66 kHz),the min frequency (29. 00 ± 1.16 kHz,28. 60 ± 1.58 kHz),and the measurements of wing shape were not significantly different between males and females. M.ricketti had average wing loading(male:8. 61 ±0.72 N /m² ,female:8.51 ± 0.81 N/ m² ),high aspect ratio (7. 96 ± 0. 31,8. 09 ± 0.34)and high wing tip shape index (2. 93 ± 1.09,2.48 ±1.02).

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Energy metabolism of Pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) in cage of Kunming Zoo

XIAO Caihong,WANG Rui,WANG Zhengkun,LIU Pengfei,CHU Yongxing,QIAN Liangchao,CAI Jinhong,LIU Chunyan,MENG Lihua,NIU Jianran,JIA Ting,ZHU Wanlong

2009, 29(4):  443-446. 

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The Pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)is a small prosimian living in Vietnam,Laos,eastern Cambodia and the south of part China. In China it is only found in Pingbian,Hekou,Jinping,Luchun of Yunnan Province. As N. pygmaeus is seriously threatened by hunting,trade and habitat destruction,it is listed in AppendixⅡ of CITES,and in 2006 the IUCN classified it as “vulnerable”. But the Pygmy loris is nocturnal which creates difficulties to study in the field. In
order to understand the characteristics of energy metabolism in N. pygmaeus,the energy intake,digestable energy intake and digestability were estimated by means of feeding trials in Kunming Zoo. The results obtained mainly were as follows: N. pygmaeus intook dry food averaged 9. 28 ± 0.48 g per day. Therefore they were estimated to gain 160. 94 ± 8.05 kJ / d from food intake,and earn 34.00 ± 7.74 kJ digestable energy intake per day with 82.84 ±1.98% of the digestability. All these characteristics of energy metabolism in N. pygmaeus of cage are possibly related with their body mass,climate,habitat, and might be considered as the adaptive characteristics to their survival environment in tropical semi-evergreen and secondary forests.

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Construction and sequence analysis of a cDNA library from the liver of Microtus fortis

FENG Jie,XIE Jianyun,SUN Qiang,YANG Yuqin,HU Jianhua,GAO Cheng

2009, 29(4):  447-450. 

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The plasmid cDNA library from the liver of Microtus fortis was constructed by using SMART technology. The titers of this cDNA library were 1076 pfu / μL,the recombination rate was about 94%,the library capacity was 1.08 × 10⁶ . 22 cDNAs chosen at random were sequenced. After BLAST analysis of these sequences,it was found that these cDNAs showed more than 75% similarity to the functional known genes of mice,rats and humans in the Genbank. The cDNA library was very important to the research of fatty liver-related gene screening and clones. These provided a base for further study on the molecular biology,fatty liver model development and pathogenesis research of Microtus fortis.