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Table of Content

    07 July 2008, Volume 27 Issue 1
    The energy cost of reproduction in small rodents
    Speakman John R.
    2007, 27(1):  1-13. 
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    Reproduction is the mechanism by which animals perpetuate their genetic contribution to future generations. Reproduction therefore has clear advantages, but it also has costs. Principal among these are elevated energy demands. Studies of energy demands in small domesticated mice have revealed that food intake increases only slightly during pregnancy, but much more dramatically during lactation. Although the increase during pregnancy are small, this may reflect competition for space in the abdomen between the alimentary tract and the developing foetal mass and intake may be limited in this situation and impose constraints on the reproductive event. During lactation energy intake increase enormously, reaching an asymptote in late lactation. Studies in wild rodents generally show the same pattern of intake between pregnancy and lactation lending hope that our work in domestic mice may provide more generally applicable insights. Studies aiming to discover the nature of the limit on intake in late lactation have been performed for at least the past 15 years. The suggestion that the limits are imposed by capacities of the alimentary tract to digest food, or the of the mammary gland to secrete milk, do not adequately explain the available data. A novel hypothesis is that the limits may be imposed by the capacity of small rodents to dissipate heat. Heat loss capacity has long been known as a constraint on lactation in large mammals. Its significance in small rodents remains uncertain, but adjustments in the level of thermogenesis from brown adipose tissue that have been classically interpreted as releasing energy to support lactation may actually reflect a reduction in obligatory heat production to avoid hyperthermia. In spite of our advances in understanding in these areas we are still far from using this knowledge to understand even simple life history trade-offs.
    Homosexual mounting within one all-male juvenile unit in wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys(Rhinopithecus roxellana)
    LU Jiuquan, ZHAO Dapeng, LI Baoguo
    2007, 27(1):  14-17. 
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    This paper is the first report of wild male Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) engaging in homosexual mounting within an all-male juvenile unit in the Qinling Mountains of China. Twenty-one cases of homosexual mounting were observed in this unit (range:1-16 s, mean =5.53±3.11 s). The result showed that 47.62% of the male homosexual mounting occurs while playing and 42.85% of them occur in the forms of three different imitated solicitations. Such as mounting were often accompanied by allogrooming (47.62%) and playing (23.81%). These results when compared with previous published data on behavior during infancy, suggests that this behavior is a component of the species, sexual developmental progression. In terms of the social organization of wild R. roxellana, juvenile male mounting in allmale unit may serve an important social bonding function between male peers. Furthermore,the phenomenon that 76.19% of homosexual mountings happened within the first hour after their "afternoon rest period", especially the initial fifteen minutes, may be caused by the reversal effect of "sleep-wake cycle"on sexual hormone regulation.
    Effects of reducing photoperiod and temperature on energy metabolism and body composition in Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii)
    ZHANG Zhiqiang, ZHANG Lina, WANG Dehua
    2007, 27(1):  18-25. 
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    In order to explore the adaptive changes in energy metabolism and body composition in response to a gradual reduction in both ambient temperature and photoperiod,male adult Brandt’s voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii) were raised under the conditions of 20℃ and 12L∶12D photoperiod (control group). The treatment group was changed from 20℃ and 16L∶8D photoperiod to 4℃ and 8L∶16D photoperiod (treatment group)over a period of five weeks and then maintained at those conditions for a further 3 weeks. Changes in body mass,resting metabolic rates (RMR),energy intake,and wet and dry mass of organs and tissues were measured at the end of the acclimation. The growth rate of body mass in treatment voles was lower than control. RMR showed no significant differences either within or between groups. No significant differences were detected in dry matter intake,energy intake,and digestible energy intake in treatment voles during the whole acclimation period,while these parameters were significantly reduced within control voles at the end of acclimation,and were significantly lower than those in treatment voles. Small intestine and stomach dry mass,as well as the wet mass of small intestine, heart,lung,liver and kidney,were significantly higher in treatment voles than in controls,but no significant differences were found in the mass of other organs and tissues. These results suggest that reducing body mass and increasing energy
    intake, together with adjusting the mass of some organs and tissues,are important physiological changes in Brandt's voles to adapt the changing environmental conditions.
    Effects of body weight on dominance hierarchy and agonistic behaviors in male greater long-tailed hamsters (Tscheskia triton)
    WANG Zhenlong, WANG Dawei, ZHANG Zhibin
    2007, 27(1):  26-32. 
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    We studied the effects of body weight on dominance hierarchy and agonistic behaviors of male greater long-tailed hamster (Tscheskia triton)in a laboratory setting. The main hypothesis tested was that body weight can significantly influence the dominance hierarchy and agonistic behaviors of male T. triton. Paired encounters between 16 male T. triton were conducted in the lab, and the probability of linearity within hierarchies was calculated. To demonstrate linearity of a hierarchy in a group, we calculated the number of circular triads in each group, and the degree of linearity within each hierarchy (i. e. the coefficient K, which has values from 0, indicating complete absence of linearity, to 1, indicating a linear hierarchy). We used regression analysis to test relationships between body weight,and agonistic behaviors and dominance hierarchy. Staged agonistic encounters showed that males developed a dominance hierarchy. Dominance hierarchy was significantly and positively correlated with body weight. Aggressive behaviors and flank marking were significantly and positively correlated with body weight, whereas defensive behaviors and aggression latency were significantly and negative correlated with body weight. Stepwise multiple regressions showed that dominance hierarchy was significantly and positively correlated with defensive behaviors and flank marking. Our results show that male T. triton, which are solitary rodents in the wild,developed a near linear dominance hierarchy during the staged agonistic encounters and that body weight play an important role in the hierarchy developed. Furthermore,we observed a diversity of relationships between body weight and agonistic behaviors.
    The tissue expression character of ob mRNA in plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae)
    YANG Jie, ZHAO Xinquan, GUO Songchang, LI Hongge, QI Delin,WANG Depeng,CAO Junhu
    2007, 27(1):  33-38. 
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    Leptin, the production of the ob gene, plays an important role in the regulation of energy homeostasis. In this study, we detected the tissue expression character of ob gene in plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) using the method of real time PCR (Taqman probe). Total RNA was extracted from eight issues includingbrain, heart, lung, liver, spleen, kidney, muscle and white adipose of plateau pika. After treated with DNase I, the total RNA was reverse transcribed with random primer to synthesize cDNA. Then the ob gene and β-actin gene were amplified with pika-specific Taqman probes and primers by real time PCR. The pika leptin mRNA in different tissues were normalized with β-actin mRNA to compensate for variations in input RNA amounts.Our results showed that ob mRNA was expressed in all of eight tissues, and tissular specificity was displayed with the highest in white adipose, next in heart and lung, and much less in kidney and liver.
    Group characteristics of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)during rutting season in the Helan Mountains,China
    LI Xinqing,LIU Zhengshen,WANG Xiaoming,CUI Duoying, LI Zhigang, HU Tianhua
    2007, 27(1):  39-44. 
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    Group characteristics of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in the Helan Mountains during rutting season (November- December, 2003 and 2004) were studied by direct observation. We observed 2 473 blue sheep in 715 groups. We made 242 bservations of copulation. Male blue sheep were classified into four age classes:classⅠ(2.5-3.5 yr), class Ⅱ(4.5-5.5 yr), class Ⅲ (6.5- 8.5 yr) and class Ⅳ (≥ 8.5 yr) when possible. Mean group size was 3.5±2.8 during pre-rut period (November),and 3.4±3.2 during the rut (December). Group sizes of male, female,male-female, mixed, and mother-young groups did not differ (P>0.05) between the pre-rut and rut time periods. Percentages in male-female, mixed,and solitary groups increased (P<0.01) from pre-rut to rut periods, while percentages in male, female, and mother-young groups decreased significantly (P < 0.01). The proportion of male blue sheep of each age class in male groups, male-female groups, mixed groups and solitary groups was significantly different (P < 0.01). All four age classes of males tended to join in mixed groups.
    Winter habitat selection of Reeves's muntjac and wild boars in the Qingliangfeng Mountains
    LU Qingbin,YU Jiangao, GAO Xin, YANG Xianyu, ZHOU Qi, ZHANG Liangbin, ZHANG Shuyan
    2007, 27(1):  45-52. 
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    We studied habitat selection of Reeves's muntjacs (Muntiacus reevesi) and wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Qingliangfeng Nature Reserve in northwestern Zhejiang, China. Habitat characteristics were measured on the basis of expected differences between species at 248 sites from 5 November 2005 to 21 January 2006. Habitat selection showed a certain extent of overlap, muntjacs and wild boars both selected habitats with shrub vegetation, low herbage density, gentle slopes, relatively close to residences, and moderate concealment. Differences in habitat selection were that muntjacs selected habitats with moderate tree density, greater shrub density and moderate canopy, whereas wild boars selected habitats with lower tree density. Muntjacs selected north-facing slopes and habitats distant from water-sources, whereas wild boars displayed noselection with regard to slope or distance from water sources. We suggest that the two species coexist in Qingliangfeng as a result of differential habitat selection associated with their species-specific anti-predator strategies. Muntjacs avoid predators by concealment whereas wild boars evade predators by running as their escape strategy.
    Diurnal behavioral time budgets and activity rhythm of the female Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) in summer
    LIAN Xinming, ZHANG Tongzuo, CAO Yifan, CAI Zhenyuan, SU Jianping
    2007, 27(1):  53-57. 
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    During June to September in 2003, 2004 and 2005, the ethogram (including foraging,vigilance, resting,moving and others) of the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) in summer was formulated and then the diurnal activity budget and rhythm were studied by the focal-animal sampling in Hoh Xil region. During the day, the Tibetan antelopes spent 59.1% of time on foraging, 7.3% on vigilance,19.4% on resting,13.0% on moving and 1.3% on others. Kruskal-Wallis H tests indicated that difference in the accumulated times of foraging, vigilance, resting or moving among the periods of diurnal time were significant (P< 0.05) or extremely significant (P<0.01). The peaks of foraging were recorded at 10:00 - 11:00,13:00 -14:00 and 18:00-19:00 and those of vigilance were at 08:00-09:00,15: 00-16:00 and 17:00 -18:00. The rhythm trends of resting and moving were typically bimodal.
    Winter diet of Siberian musk deer in the Lesser Xingan Mountains
    WU Jianping, SHAN Jihong, LI Yankuo
    2007, 27(1):  58-63. 
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    We studied winter diets of Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) in Tonghe Forestry Bureau,Heilongjiang Province during February, March and November, 2004 and January 2005. Fecal components and their relative proportions were quantified by micro-morphological observation and direct field investigation. Nutrient content of 9 species of woody plant, moss, fern, and lichen was analyzed. Winter diets of musk deer included 66 plant species of 46 families. Rhododendron dauricum (32.7% ), Deutzia glabata (7.8% ), Acer mono (5.8% ), and Carex callitrichos (5.6% ) were the main
    components in winter diets, occupying 51.9% of all plants used. Twigs and leaves of woody plants constituted 75.0% of total quantity of forage, with the remainder consisting of herbs, ferns, mosses, and lichens.
    Diet analysis for Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) in Tianjun area, Qinghai province,China
    LI Zhongqiu, JIANG Zhigang
    2007, 27(1):  64-67. 
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    A systematic study of the diet of Tibetan gazelles (Procapra picticaudata) was completed by microscopic fecal analysis from 2005 and 2006 in Tanjun area,Qinghai province,China. We identified 43 plant species in the fecal samples of Tibetan gazelles in the experiments, representing 34 genera and 16 families. The gazelle grazed on 42 species representing 33 genera and 16 families during the green-plant period but only foraged on 30 species from 22 genera and 12 families during the withered-plant period. Leguminosae were the largest part of the diet,comprising 52.7% ,of the diet of Tibetan gazelle during the green-plant period and 38.5% during withered-plant period. Besides Leguminosae, four other families, the Gramineae, Compositae, Rosaceae and Cyperaceae, were mainly foraged by Tibetan gazelle. Food from the above five families made up about 90% of the diet of Tibetan gazelle. Diet compositions of Tibetan gazelle changed greatly from the green-plant period to the withered-plant period. Proportions of Leguminosae and Rosaceae decreased significantly while proportions of Gramineae, Compositae and Cyperaceae increased significantly.
    Survey on the resources status of dugong in Hainan Province,China
    WANG Peilie, HAN Jiabo, MA Zhiqiang, WANG Nianbin
    2007, 27(1):  68-73. 
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    In order to provide scientific data for establishing a dugong (Dugong dugon) nature reserve in Hainan Province,we investigated the marine environment and the status of dugongs along the west cost of Hainan Island, November 2001-October 2002. Questionnaire surveys in Guangxi and Guangdong as well as Hainan were also conducted during this time. We documented dugongs in the coastal waters of Hepu County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region,but found no dugongs along the west coast of Hainan. Seagrass beds in the traditional habitats of dugong were destroyed and had disappeared in some areas. We believe that conditions are not presently conducive to establishment of a dugong nature reserve in Hainan. The dugong population has been reduced by human activities and ecosystem deterioration. Effective measures and an integrated management system are needed to conserve dugongs and their habitats.
    Urinary estradiol and progesterone dynamics in captive Asian elephants
    YANG Fan,WANG Lihong, HE Qian, ZHANG Jinguo, ZHANG Li
    2007, 27(1):  74-79. 
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    Two adult female Asian elephants at the Beijing Zoo are not known to have ever come into estrus. In order tounderstand possible reasons for this,we studied variation in urinary estradiol and progesterone levels of these 2 non-oestrus females,as well as of a pregnant female at the zoo,via radioimmunoassay from December 2003 to March 2005. For the pregnant female, progesterone increased abruptly one week before parturition and remained at a low level afterwards. Estradiol began at a high level,decreased suddenly one week before parturition, and remained at a low level until the end of the study. Urinary progesterone and estradiol levels in the non-estrus elephants was notably lower than in the pregnant elephant, and displayed no obvious periodic fluctuation. We hypothesize that ovaries in these 2 elephants were inactive, resulting in lack of hormone fluctuation and lack of estrous.
    The arterial supply to the brain of Rhinopithecus roxelana
    YU Shiyuan, JIA Zongping, XIA Bingzhi,WEI Zhongmei, WANG Fangchun
    2007, 27(1):  80-85. 
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    We explore the morphological characteristics of the blood supply to the brain of Rhinopithecus roxelana, providing a basis for study of the morphology of the brain vasculature of the animal. We observed the origin and branches and distribution of the brain arteries of Rhinopithecus roxellana by arterial vascular casting and tissue transparance methods. Results showed the blood supplies to the brain in Rhinopithecus roxellana are basically as same as those to the human brain, and come from the internal carotid and vertebral artery. The above mentioned branches contribute to the formation of cerebral artery circle. The blood supply to the anterior cerebrum is mainly provided by the middle and anterior cerebral arteries which arise from the internal carotid. Basilar,cerebella and caudal cerebral arteries are formed by the vertebral artery,and
    supply the brain stem,cerebellum and posterior cerebrum. But the brain of the Rhinopithecus roxelana does not have the anterior communicating artery.
    Diagnosis and treatment of pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa
    GUO Zheng, ZHAO Qinzhong, ZHANG Xianfeng
    2007, 27(1):  86-91. 
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    The whole process of diagnosis, treatment and prognosis for a Yangtze finlessporpoise, Neophocaena phocaenoidesasiaeorientalis, that suffered from acute respiratory disease is recorded in this paper. A sample of nasal swab was taken, incubated in blood-agar plate under aerobic and anaerobic culture conditions at 37℃ and the cultured bacterium was identified. Combining these results with hematology data and blood chemistry of the animal, the pathogen was determined to be Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA). Treatment was implemented guided by drug-sensitivity tests of PA and prognosis was good. Through summarization of the data of this process, it was learned that:1) It is important to enhance the measures of disinfection in the rearing environment so as to decrease the possibility of acquired PA infection; 2) Daily detection of PA in feces and aspiratory sample is necessary for prevention and control of the disease in the early stage; 3) Timely cure of the disease depends on correct diagnosis, and drug-sensitivity testing is necessary for correct treatment. 4) Behavioral change by the animal is a good indication in both the early and the post-treatment stages of the disease.
    A preliminary analysis on the habitat selection of Chinese white dolphins (Sousa chinensis) in Xiamen waters,China
    CHEN Bingyao, ZHAI Feifei, XU Xinrong, YANG Guang
    2007, 27(1):  92-95. 
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    One hundred and eighty-one boat surveys were conducted within 150 days between February and December, 2004 in Xiamen waters,which covered an area about 700 km2. A total of 102 separate sightings were recorded. Habitat selection (i.e., water depth, tidal conditions, and distance offshore) were analyzed by using selection frequency and x2 -test. The results showed high level of selection for water depth under 20 meters and distance offshore within 1 000 meters, whereas no significant selection was found for tide level, water temperature or tide direction. In addition, for the purpose of providing fundamental information for conservation and management,
    the utilization of different sections of Xiamen waters was discussed. Furthermore, Xiamen west harbour and waters from Jiyu to Wuyu were identified as the 'key habitats' and Dadeng waters may serve as a 'sanctuary' for the Xiamen population.
    Studies on applicability of multilocus DNA fingerprinting in Bulgarian common vole (Microtus arvalis)
    CHEN Wei, Leibenguth Friedrich, CHEN Hong
    2007, 27(1):  101-104. 
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    In the paper, DNA fingerprinting patterns of common vole (Microtus arvalis) were detected with HindIII, HinfI and microsatellite probe (GTG)5. The results showed that legible DNA fingerprints were not produced with HindIII and probe (GTG)5, however HinfI and probe (GTG)5 produced abundantly informative DNA fingerprints. DNA fingerprints were individual-specific and represented higher polymorphism in number, intensity and distribution bands among individuals. The band-sharing rates (BSR) between individuals were determined by the DNA fingerprints. The average band numbersand average band-sharing rates in fragment length region (FLR) of >2.3 kb were 29.625±5.012 and 0.388±0.083 respectively. Correlative fingerprint-data with the population were calculated from average BSR. In this study,a technical basis is established for application of multilocus DNA fingerprinting in common vole.