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30 November 2025, Volume 45 Issue 6

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The production and evolutionary adaptation of alarm calls in small mammals: research progress and prospect

Linchu TIAN, Qiangyun LI, Heping FU, Zhishu XIAO, Shuai YUAN, Wei LIU

2025, 45(6):  723-742.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151099

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Alarm calls are a key communication behavior for animals to defend against risks, especially in response to predation threats. The study of their adaptation and evolution is of great significance for understanding the evolution of signal structure in animal vocal communication (including human language) as well as the mechanisms of signal recognition and cognition. Over the years, our understanding about the nature of alarm calls has continued to mature. Simultaneously, the function of alarm calls in conveying information in animal social interactions has been widely recognized. However, it remains unclear the production and driving mechanisms of alarm calls, not only the encoding and transmission of vocalization information but also their impact on multi-level response patterns of receivers. In recent years, with the rapid development of acoustic monitoring, digital signal processing, and artificial intelligence deep learning technologies, research on alarm calls has expanded from discriptive patterns description to a theoretical integration, validation, and mechanistic elucidation. Here, we review studies on alarm calls in small mammals over the past 20 years and briefly outline the research connotations and methods of alarm call communication. From the perspectives of call or vocalization production and adaptation, we summarize the research progress on the risk-driven effects of alarm vocalization information encoding, as well as the current status of research on the impacts of individual identity characteristics, such as age (body size), sex, and social attributes and habitat features on alarm calling. We also systematically summarize various natural selection theories and their controversies regarding the evolutionary adaptation of alarm calls. Finally, based on current application context, we discuss and prospect some key issues on the vocalization and response mechanisms and functional evolutionary adaptation of alarm calls in small mammals for the future.

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Electrophysiological recording paradigms and advances in the study of auditory basis of echolocation in bats

Shiyu ZHOU, Di ZHANG, Huan YE, Jinhong LUO

2025, 45(6):  743-752.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.2015-1084

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As the only mammals capable of powered flight, coupled with their remarkable echolocation ability, bats occupy a unique niche in the night sky and represent one of the most diverse mammalian lineages. Electrophysiological methods, primarily involving the recording of neural activity, significantly advanced our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying bat echolocation. This review details the advantages and disadvantages of three primary electrophysiological recording paradigms: recordings under anesthesia, head-fixed recordings, and recordings during free movement. Recordings under anesthesia are useful for studying the functions of neurons in specific brain regions, but anesthetic drugs may interfere with neural activity. Head-fixed recordings can capture neural activity in awake animals but typically restrict their behavioral range. Recordings during free movement are the recommended electrophysiological paradigm, as they most closely match the animals’ natural behaviors. Recently, the application of new technologies such as optogenetics, chemogenetics, and two-photon calcium imaging have opened new avenues for studying the neural mechanisms of bat echolocation. Future research may combine multiple electrophysiological methods with these emerging technologies to better reveal the neural basis of bat echolocation.

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Research advances in vocal communication behavior and neural mechanisms of common marmosets

Qianbing LI, Xiangyu ZHANG, Lixia GAO

2025, 45(6):  753-762.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151104

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Vocal communication is a major way of information exchange among individual animals or groups, exhibiting diversity across different species. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) has become a prominent non-human primate model in neurobiology, particularly in vocal communication research, due to its rich vocal repertoire, highly developed auditory system, complex vocal communication behaviors, and notable social characteristics. This article reviews the progress in research on vocal communication behavior and its neural mechanisms in common marmosets. It begins by outlining their vocal repertoire and acoustic characteristics. Building on this, the vocalizations are functionally categorized, with a focus on their specific roles and ecological significance in social interactions, foraging behavior, and alarm responses. Next, the neural mechanisms underlying vocal communication in common marmosets are presented, including the neural circuits and regulatory mechanisms of vocal production, as well as the key roles of the auditory cortex, prefrontal cortex, and limbic system in primary sound processing and higher-order functional integration. Finally, based on the current state of research, suggestions for future studies are proposed. This review aims to advance research on vocal communication in common marmosets and provide theoretical references for related fields.

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Research progress on the mechanism and transmission pathway of seismic signals in subterranean rodents

Kechi DONG, Limin HUA

2025, 45(6):  763-770.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151090

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Subterranean rodents inhabit dark and complex underground tunnels. Under the action of environmental pressure, they have evolved communication methods that are compatible with the environment, and seismic communication is one of the typical behavioral strategies for their biological evolutionary adaptation. Understanding the location and transmission pathway of seismic signals is the first problem to be solved to improve and develop the research on seismic communication of subterranean rodents. However, the unique habitat lifestyle of subterranean rodents increases the difficulty of seismic communication research, limiting the in-depth development of research on seismic communication of subterranean rodents. This paper reviews the research status of the occurrence mechanism and transmission pathway of seismic signals in subterranean rodents. In general, the signal generation mechanism involves the diversity of foot, head, chest, teeth and nasal snout. The signal transduction pathway includes bone conduction and somatosensory reception.Bone conduction relies on the mandibular-ossicular chain to transmit seismic to the inner ear, whereas somatosensory reception is achieved by mechanical receptors, and the two may work together at different distances to achieve signal reception. The future research direction is prospected from the difference of the role of related parts in the mechanism of seismic signal generation, the transmission pathway of seismic signal, and the application in the management of zokor damage.

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The prospective applications of single-cell transcriptome sequencing in mammalian inner ear research

Mengdie ZHANG, Bicheng ZHU, Guanglin HE, Yuzhong ZHANG, Jinchan JIAN, Anqi SHEN, Yunzhu LIU, Kai HE

2025, 45(6):  771-783.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151059

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The inner ear, as the core organ responsible for hearing and balance, possesses an intricate structure with diverse cell types. Single-cell RNA sequencing technology (scRNA-Seq) enables the capture and analysis of gene expression profiles at the individual cell level, providing a powerful tool for in-depth exploration of the functions and molecular mechanisms of the inner ear. We review the significant applications of scRNA-Seq in inner ear research from 2015 to 2024, highlighting important advances in revealing cellular heterogeneity, tracing inner ear development processes, investigating hearing loss mechanisms, and cell regeneration researches. We also discuss the potential application of scRNA-Seq technology in addressing key scientific questions in wildlife research and explore the prospects of single-cell multi-omics techniques in uncovering the adaptive evolution and molecular mechanisms of the mammalian inner ear.

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Advancements and prospects of software for processing and analyzing terrestrial mammal sound data

Yongqiao HUANG, Chengyun ZHANG, Zixin ZHANG, Zezhou HAO

2025, 45(6):  784-796.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151036

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Terrestrial mammal vocalization data processing and analysis software is an essential tool for ecological researchers, enabling automated and efficient handling and analysis of bioacoustic recordings. These tools are vital for delving into the intricate details of animal vocalizations and providing foundational support for ecoacoustic and animal vocalization studies. The rapid advancement of passive acoustic monitoring technology and artificial intelligence has led to a significant increase in the number and variety of vocalization analysis software. Recent developments have seen substantial progress in noise reduction, acoustic indices, data annotation, species identification, and feature extraction. These softwares play a crucial role in archiving bioacoustic data, ensuring the preservation and accessibility of valuable ecological information for long-term monitoring and research purposes. This paper systematically reviews relevant literature and open-source software platforms, outlining the workflow for processing and analyzing terrestrial mammal vocalization data. It aims to discuss the current state of vocalization analysis software and its applications in bioacoustic research, and provides an outlook on the future development and localization of AI-assisted bioacoustic software to enhance analysis efficiency and broaden its applicability.

ORIGINAL PAPERS

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Ecological adaptations of alarm calls in Brandt’s voles did not support the acoustic adaptation hypothesis

Qiangyun LI, Jinhai WU, Siriguleng, Jianping ZHANG, Yumin LIU, Zhishu XIAO, Junhu SU, Wei LIU

2025, 45(6):  797-809.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150966

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Vocal alarm is one of the important survival strategies for animals, where habitat vegetation cover, climatic factors, noise, and call purpose may play a role in the adaptive tuning of animal calls. How the alarm calls of animals adapt to the temporal changes of habitat structure remains poorly explored. The acoustic adaptation hypothesis (AAH) suggests that animal calls should evolve in a direction that facilitates efficient transmission in their environment, but not all empirical reports support its predictions. The alarm calls of Brandt’s voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii) are an important anti-predator behavior. To detect the acoustic characteristics and functional adaptability of their alarm calls, in May, July, and September 2023, the alarm calls of Brandt's voles were collected in the typical steppe area of Xin Barag Right Banner, Inner Mongolia. These calls were then combined with the local historical climate parameters and real-time environmental noise indicators to analyze the relationship between the characteristics of their alarm calls and the habitat. The results showed that the alarm calls of Brandt’s voles exhibit both monosyllabic (13.1%) and multisyllabic acoustic (86.9%) characteristics. Furthermore, the minimum and maximum fundamental frequency were significantly positively correlated with habitat vegetation index and ambient relative humidity, respectively, but significantly negatively correlated with wind speed. The maximum fundamental frequency and fundamental frequency range were significantly positively correlated with ambient noise, while other frequency (i.e. the minimum fundamental frequency) and time (i.e. inter-note intervals of a call) domain parameter showed a negative correlation. Under the environmental conditions of relatively high temperature, abundant rainfall, and low noise in summer (July), the alarm calls of Brandt’s voles were characterized by long pulses with relatively concentrated audio frequencies and high-frequency sounds with loose syllables. In spring (May) and autumn (September), which were relatively dry, windy, and noisy, especially in September, the calls were adjusted to short pulses and broadband low-frequency sounds with dense syllables. The alarm calls of Brandt's voles responded to the seasonal changes in relative humidity, wind, and noise rather than vegetation canopy density, which did not support the acoustic adaptation hypothesis. This difference was also the result of their trade-off between anti-predator risks and benefits and was closely related to the dispersal of their offspring or family relatives. This study provides a basis for the anti-predator acoustic countermeasures related to the adaptation of Brandt’s voles to colonial and seasonal breeding life.

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Behavioral response of captive Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys to noise from different sources

Jiangming WU, Xiaolong HUANG, Shaochuan CHENG, Wei YANG, Xu ZHANG, Jingcheng RAN

2025, 45(6):  810-819.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151024

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Anthropogenic noise reshapes the soundscape of natural environments, causing adverse effects on the behavior, distribution, and vigilance of wildlife. The Guizhou snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) is one of the most endangered primates globally, inhabiting only the Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve in Guizhou. To investigate the behavioral responses of Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys to different noises, from December 2023 to June 2024, we studied Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys in captivity at the Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey Research Center. Four types of noise, including traffic noise, tourist noise, rural noise, and avian predator call, were played back with a gradient of noise levels (40 dB, 50 dB, 60 dB, and 70 dB), and behavioral changes of Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys were recorded using focal animal sampling method. The results show that the four types of noise stimuli can cause an increase in vigilance time and a decrease in rest in Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys. The vigilance time tends to increase with the intensity of the noise level, and avoidance phenomenon appears when stimulated with a 60 dB noise level. The difference in vigilance time is significant (P < 0.05) among the different types of noise, and the percentage of the total vigilance time to the avian predator is significantly higher than that to the sound of human noise such as traffic noise, tourist noise and rural noise. Captive Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys have a habituation effect on human noise to which they had been exposed for a long time. This study initially reveals the behavioral response patterns of Guizhou snub-nosed monkeys under different noise interference conditions, which provides a basis for subsequent in-depth research on their behavior, the regulation of human activities, and the formulation of conservation and management measures.

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The long-distance calling of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) serves a defensive function for their sleeping sites

Yuqian SONG, Bojun YI, Meijie TAO, Dengpan NONG, Qihai ZHOU, Penglai FAN

2025, 45(6):  820-830.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151048

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Long-distance calling is a distinctive vocal signal known for its loudness and long-range transmission, typically emitted by male individuals. It is often inferred to serve important socio-ecological functions, such as territory defense, protection of valuable resources, and mate attraction. The white-headed langur (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) is an endemic primate species in China, inhabiting the karst limestone forests in the southwestern of Guangxi. The role of long-distance calling in the survival and reproduction of white-headed langurs remains unclear. Between February 2023 and August 2023, we collected data on the long-distance calling locations and times of adult males from eight white-headed langur groups, as well as information on their foraging and sleeping sites, in the Banli area of the Chongzuo White-headed Langur National Nature Reserve, Guangxi. We tested the defensive function of long-distance calls concerning two important resources: food and sleeping sites. The results indicated that adult male white-headed langurs initiate their first long-distance calls an average of 38 min after the group departs from the cave, at an average distance of 43 m from the sleeping site. They make their last long-distance calls an average of 39 min before the group returns to the cave, also at an average distance of 43 m from the sleeping site. Additionally, the location of the sleeping site significantly influenced the calling location of the white-headed langurs, supporting the hypothesis that these calls serve a sleeping site defense function. However, foraging locations had no significant impact on calling locations, which did not support the food resource defense hypothesis. These findings indicate that long-distance calling in white-headed langurs is used for defending sleeping sites but not food resources. This study is the first to clarify the role of long-distance calls in defending critical survival resources in white-headed langurs. It enhances our understanding of the adaptive mechanisms and functions of vocal communication in white-headed langurs and provides scientific evidence for the conservation of rare and endangered species.

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Preliminary analysis of vocalization patterns and influencing factors of cetaceans in the Beibu Gulf

Zongwei LIU, Ping ZHAO, Dezheng GAO, Ying JIANG, Bingyao CHEN, Zhichao LYU, Liangang LYU

2025, 45(6):  831-841.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151112

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Based on the 113-day acoustic data measured in the Beibu Gulf, this paper uses an automatic detection method to detect the click signals of cetaceans in the data, counts the number of signals, and obtains the vocalization patterns of cetaceans during the observation period. Statistical analysis of the number of click signals of cetaceans during the observation period shows that the number of clicks of cetaceans is less in late winter and more in early spring. During the day, it is less and at night, it is more. The influence of hydrological and meteorological factors on the number of click signals of cetaceans during the observation period is analyzed. It is found that the number of click signals of cetaceans is less in late winter and more in early spring. The correlation between sea surface temperature, wind speed, and rain fall and the number of click signals of cetaceans is not obvious, the low-frequency environmental noise is calculated, and it is found that the noise level is high during the day and low at night, which is inversely proportional to the number of click signals of cetaceans during the day and night. This is considered to be caused by the difference in ship noise between day and night. The situation of ship noise during the observation period is analyzed, and it is found that cetaceans’ click signals are affected by ships. When ship noise occurs, cetaceans do not vocalize or have fewer vocalizations. Thus, it is concluded that cetaceans have a certain avoidance phenomenon towards ships.

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No remarkable differences in behavioral responses in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to playbacks of recordings of UAV infrasound and conspecific rumble calls

Sijia SHEN, Lu WANG, Xu ZHAO, Tao LIU, Xuefeng LIU, Dingzhen LIU

2025, 45(6):  842-850.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150977

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The Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) technology has been widely used in many fields of wildlife study and conservation. It remains, however, highly unknown whether the infrasonic noise generated by the flying UAV will impair the behavior of wild animals, especially species which are sensitive to infrasound. This study investigated the behavioral responses in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Beijing Zoo to playbacks of recordings of UAVs infrasound and the rumble calls of conspecific by employing a Habituation-Dishabituation paradigm. The results show that captive elephants displayed no dishabituation in response to the playbacks of UAV infrasound recordings even though they have got habituated to the playback of conspecific rumble call recordings. Under our experimental paradigm and with the playback equipment currently available, captive Asian elephants did not behaviorally discriminate between the two acoustic recordings. Whether UAV infrasonic noise interferes with intraspecific communication and social behavior in this species remains unresolved; future work should therefore employ UAV noise within an appropriate frequency range and high-fidelity playback systems to clarify this issue.