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31 January 2026, Volume 46 Issue 1

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The effects of captivity on gut microbiota of wild mammals

Yuxiang LI, Xi TIAN, Chunbing LIU, Li YU

2026, 46(1):  1-19.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151041

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Human activities lead to ecosystem fragmentation, accelerated degradation, and permanent decline of biodiversity. Artificial captive breeding is considered an important method for effectively protecting threatened species and is one of the key ways to save endangered animals. However, due to various factors such as food and living environment, animals have undergone significant changes from the wild to the captive environment, leading to a series of problems such as gastrointestinal disorders, infections, and diseases in mammals. The gut microbiota is widely recognized to play a crucial role in maintaining the health of the body, and its disruption and ecological imbalance can directly affect the host’s health. There are many different environmental factors between captive environment and wild environment. This paper discusses the effects of diet change, habitat homogenization, stress and antibiotics on gut microbiota of wild mammals in captivity. The diversity of gut microorganisms of different feeding mammals did not change uniformly, but their composition and structure all changed when they were faced with the simplification of the captive diet. The high homogeneity of the habitats in captivity made the gut microorganisms of mammals show different degrees of humanization. Various stresses in captivity can cause imbalances in mammalian gut microbiota. Direct or indirect use of antibiotics in captivity can alter the composition of mammalian gut microbiota and increase the variety and number of antibiotic resistance genes in gut microbiota. These changes have altered the gut microbiota and impacted the health of captive wild mammals, affecting wildlife reintroduction efforts. Future research direction is also discussed in order to provide guidelines for the protection of wild mammals.

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Progress in the application of deep learning in wildlife image recognition and analysis

Shiyu CHEN, Jin HOU, Dan LIU, Jing LIU, Peng LUO, Bochuan ZHENG, Jindong ZHANG

2026, 46(1):  20-38.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150954

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Establishing a comprehensive wildlife monitoring system is the foundation for conducting conservation research. Traditional manual monitoring methods have various limitations, and some monitoring efforts have gradually been replaced by infrared camera trap technology. Nevertheless, the widespread use of infrared camera monitoring technology has introduced challenges in handling and analyzing massive amounts of data. Therefore, it is urgent to find an efficient method to process and analyze a large number of infrared camera data. In recent years, deep learning has been widely applied in the study of wild animal images. In order to comprehensively understand the application progress of deep learning theory and technology in wildlife image recognition, we provide an overview of the relevant research from 2000 to 2024. It elaborates on commonly used network models applications and their research progress in terms of eliminating invalid data, species identification, individual recognition, and behavior recognition. We summarize the status of deep learning in two types of images of wild animals, and emphatically discuss the existing problems and solutions of deep learning in infrared camera images. This paper analyzes the potential of applying artificial intelligence image processing techniques in infrared camera monitoring work and provides recommendations and insights for future development in order to provide ideas and directions for research on individual identification and population monitoring of wild animals.

ORIGINAL PAPERS

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Characterization of rodent viromes and epidemiology of key viruses in China

Xinyu ZHANG, Yuhao WANG, Xuemin WEI, Chao LI, Yuanyuan SHEN, Yifei XU

2026, 46(1):  39-46.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150995

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Rodents exhibit a high taxonomic diversity in China. To understand the diversity of rodent viromes in China and the factors influencing it, we investigate the prevalence of key viruses carried by rodents and discuss measures to prevent and control viral diseases of rodent origin. We obtained sequencing data of Chinese rodent viromes from online databases, and used Fastp for quality control, Bowtie2 to remove host and ribosomal RNA reads, MEGAHIT for assembly, DIAMOND and BLAST for viral species annotation, Pysamstats to splice consensus sequences, and IQ-TREE for phylogenetic analysis. We integrated 426 sequenced libraries across 9 families, 23 genera, and 42 species of rodents, totaling 2 817 individuals. Our analyses recovered 358 viruses belonging to 31 RNA virus families and 9 DNA virus families. We found that viral composition and abundance varied with host species, regional origin, and sampling organ. Among all detected viruses, 38 viruses from 16 viral families were known to be infectious to humans. Most of these human-associated viruses were detected in Muridae, with which humans have close contact. Phylogenetic analyses of Hantaviridae and Coronaviridae revealed that many viruses are distributed across various host species in multiple regions, suggesting potential cross-species and cross-region transmission. This study systematically characterized the virome of Chinese rodents based on virome sequencing data. Our analysis of key viruses indicates the necessity of monitoring viruses carried by Muridae, which offers new insights into the potential emergence of infectious diseases within rodent populations.

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Subspecies affiliation and population status of rhesus macaque in Qinghai, China

Nan SUN, Guogang LI, Shunzhi XUE, Jiqi LU

2026, 46(1):  47-59.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151002

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The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) is the only non-human primate species currently living in Qinghai Province, distributed solely in the southern forest areas of Yushu and Guoluo Zang Autonomous Prefectures. Identifying the subspecies of wild macaques in Qinghai, understanding their population dynamics, and distribution is of great significance for their conservation. In January 2021, one muscle tissue (Baizha, Yushu) and six fecal samples (Makehe, Guoluo) of rhesus macaque were collected by non-invasive sampling, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the 16S rRNA and Cyt b genes. It confirmed that the rhesus macaques distributed in Yushu and Guoluo were the Tibetan subspecies (M. m. vestita) and the Sichuan subspecies (M. m. lasiotus), respectively. From January 2021 to May 2023, infrared camera monitoring yielded 91 present sites and 838 independent events of rhesus macaque. Using MaxEnt modeling, the suitable habitat area for macaques was predicted to be 137 - 385 km² (Baizha) and 207 - 750 km² (Makehe). The results indicated that rhesus macaques preferred the habitat of lower altitude, sloping, river-adjacent, sunny forests and farmlands. Transect surveys and random encounter model were used to estimate the macaque population. Following repeated transect surveys in winter 2021 and 2022, conducting at historical record sites (Baizha and Jiangxi in Yushu, Makehe in Guoluo), a total of 24 macaque groups with approximately 1 580 individuals were recorded, with an increase of 43.8% in individuals compared to 40 years ago. The random encounter model estimated the macaque population in Baizha and Makehe to be 73 - 205 and 413 - 1 497 individuals, respectively. The research can provide references and technical support for biodiversity conservation in Qinghai Province.

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Effects of random food deprivation on energy metabolism in striped hamsters with different diets

Wenting LI, Xinyu SHI, Pinhan WANG, Jing WEN

2026, 46(1):  60-72.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151013

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Small mammals frequently encounter the challenge of food availability in the wild. The food resources of striped hamsters exhibit significant seasonal variations, and both the quantity and composition of food can impact the metabolic phenotype of striped hamsters. In this study, we investigate the impact of random food deprivation on the energy metabolism in striped hamsters with different diets. We hypothesized that striped hamsters consuming high fat diets significantly enhanced resilience to food scarcity. In the experiment, adult male striped hamsters were randomly divided into four groups each with 8 individuals: high-fat diet control group (HF-Con), high-fat diet intermittent fasting group (HF-IF), low-fat diet control group (LF-Con), and low-fat diet intermittent fasting group (LF-IF) and then domesticated for 5 weeks. By measuring body mass, food intake, metabolic rate, body fat, and tissue metabolism, we analyzed the strategies of striped hamsters in response to random food deprivation under high and low-fat diets. The results showed that the body mass and subcutaneous fat weight of the HF-IF group were significantly reduced, while overall and tissue metabolism changes were not significant after random food deprivation.The LF-IF group significantly reduced body mass, food intake, the weight of brown adipose tissue (BAT), and nocturnal metabolic rate, but significantly increased the resting metabolic rate (RMR). The body mass of the HF-IF group significantly decreased during the fasting period and quickly returned to a new homeostasis after re-feeding. In contrast, the body mass of the LF-IF group decreased gradually. Therefore, the striped hamsters with high-fat diets exhibited strong compensatory mechanisms during the fasting-refeeding process, whereas those in the LF-IF group could not adapt to random food deprivation. The high-fat diets significantly increased the hamsters’ body fat content to maintain their energy balance during food scarcity. In summary, these findings were consistent with our expectations, emphasizing that diets determined the survival adaptation strategies of animals, and striped hamsters on a high-fat diet could better resist the risks associated with the food shortage.

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The effects of vitamin A in food on the testes of male Spermophilus dauricus in laboratory hibernation

Yihan MA, Zhenshan LIU, Xi CHEN, Xiaohan LIU, Xia PENG, Xinyu LIU, Xin XING, Ming YANG

2026, 46(1):  73-84.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151017

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Seasonal reproduction is a strategy for mammals to adapt to environmental changes. Daurian ground squirrel (Spermophilus dauricus) is a hibernating species and a typical seasonal breeder that mates and reproduces only once a year after emerging from hibernation in the wild. Under laboratory conditions, the artificial mating and breeding technology after hibernation is still immature, and this species has not yet been domesticated as a laboratory animal. Vitamin A (VA) can be metabolized into retinoic acid (RA) within mammalian organisms. Recent research has revealed that RA promotes the differentiation of spermatogonia, the meiotic division of spermatocytes, and the transformation of round spermatids into mature spermatozoa. To explore whether VA from food, after digestion and absorption, can be metabolized into RA in the body of Daurian ground squirrel and affect the gonads, this study divided male Daurian ground squirrels into three groups, which were fed with food containing different levels of VA throughout the year. Group 1VA was fed with food containing the standard amount of vitamin A (17 500 IU/kg), Group 2VA was fed with food containing twice the amount of vitamin A (35 000 IU/kg), and Group 0VA was fed with food without added vitamin A. At the end of hibernation, samples were taken to determine the morphological and histological indicators of the testis and epididymis, and to detect the differentiation of spermatogonia in the testes, as well as the levels of VA, RA, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and testosterone (T) in the serum. The results showed that the levels of VA, RA, GnRH, LH, FSH, T in the serum, as well as the expression levels of retinoic acid gene 8 (Stra8) and meioticrecombination protein 8 (Rec8) in the testes of Spermophilus dauricus in Group 2VA and Group 1VA, were significantly higher than those in Group 0VA. However, there were no significant differences in the aforementioned indicators between Group 2VA and Group 1VA. This indicates that vitamin A can be metabolized into retinoic acid in the body of Daurian ground squirrel, promoting the development of gonads and spermatogenesis in male Daurian ground squirrels during seasonal reproduction. Adding an excessive amount of VA in the food has no significant effect on the gonads of male Daurian ground squirrels, but removing VA from the food does inhibit the differentiation of spermatogonia and the occurrence of sperm. This suggests that vitamin A in food is very important for the successful reproduction of Daurian ground squirrels under artificial breeding conditions.

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Daily activity rhythm of roe deer in Wulingshan Nature Reserve, Miyun District, Beijing

Zhengyu ZHANG, Siyu YU, Xinmin FANG, Zhihong MA, Zhuang MA, Jian LI, Yingying HAN, Fuli GAO, Weidong BAO

2026, 46(1):  85-94.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150975

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Rhythms are key indicators of wild animals' adaptive strategies to varying environmental conditions. Ungulates play a crucial role in forest ecosystems, influencing not only the structure of plant communities but also the dynamics of predator-prey interactions, particularly in relation to large carnivores. However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies on the long-term and seasonal variations in the activity rhythms of hoofed species. This study focuses on the roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) in the Wulingshan Nature Reserve, Miyun District, Beijing, as a model species. Using infrared camera trap data collected from 2016 to 2021, we applied non-parametric kernel density estimation to analyze the temporal patterns of roe deer activity. This approach allowed us to explore the seasonal and long-term variations in their daily activity rhythms, providing insights into how these animals adapt to changing environmental conditions. The results indicated that the activity rhythms of roe deer in the Wulingshan Nature Reserve remain stable over extended periods, with the annual activity patterns showing low sensitivity to minor environmental changes. The daily activity rhythm of roe deer has obvious characteristics of morning and evening activity, with peak intensities observed at 05: 00 - 10: 00 and 17: 00 - 20: 00, respectively. Roe deer are more active at night in spring and summer. The activity overlap coefficient of roe deer in each season was above 0.83, and there was no obvious seasonal difference in activity rhythm. The highest overlap coefficients were observed between spring and summer (Δ₄ = 0.900 8), and the lowest between spring and winter (Δ₄ = 0.834 7). During summer time, roe deer tended to forage earlier and later in the day. Whereas in winter, they exhibited a delayed morning activity peak, an earlier evening peak, and a longer duration of peak activity compared to other seasons. This study found that the daily activity rhythms of roe deer in the Wulingshan Reserve exhibits no significant seasonal variation, with primary activity occurring in the morning and evening and nocturnal activity being less pronounced. The findings of this study offer a solid scientific foundation for evaluating the success of roe deer habitat restoration and the stability of the associated food chain. Additionally, they provide critical insights that can inform strategies for the reintroduction and management of large carnivores in conservation efforts.

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Feeding characteristics of captive giant pandas on different bamboo species in Guizhou Province

Da LI, Xiongwei YANG, Zhenjiang DAI, Haijun SU, Wenwu FENG

2026, 46(1):  95-104.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150980

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The utilization of local bamboo resources for captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a critical component of zoo management and conservation strategies. This study investigates the feeding behavior of captive giant pandas on 56 bamboo species from 17 genera, based on the current availability of bamboo resources in Guizhou Province, China. The results indicate that the two captive giant pandas exhibited a broad dietary range, consuming 53 (94.64%) of the bamboo species offered. The pandas primarily consumed the leaves of most bamboo species, while stems were rarely eaten. Notably, they displayed a strong preference for bitter bamboo (Pleioblastus amarus) and broad-leaved reed bamboo (Indocalamus latifolius). Statistical analysis revealed a highly significant difference in the consumption of bitter bamboo stems compared to other species (P < 0.01), whereas no significant difference was observed in the consumption of reed bamboo leaves (P > 0.05). Further analysis of leaf weight and leaf area demonstrated that the pandas preferentially consumed bamboo species with significantly heavier and larger leaves (P < 0.01). These findings highlight distinct feeding preferences of captive giant pandas for specific native bamboo species. The study provides a valuable example for optimizing the captive breeding and management of giant pandas in Guizhou Province and offers a scientific basis for selecting local bamboo species as food sources for captive giant pandas in other regions.

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Study on the occupancy model of urban mammals using camera-trapping techniques: a case study in Shenzhen, south China

Mengchan YANG, Fangfang SUN, Yang WU, Yingyong WANG, Jian ZHAO, Ketong DENG

2026, 46(1):  105-115.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150986

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Urbanization profoundly shapes regional biodiversity. Yet in-depth understanding of how urban wildlife respond to urbanization in China is limited due to the lack of concern and research regarding urban wildlife. In order to provide insights into how the urban biodiversity is maintained, we used an empirical dataset collected from 176 camera traps deployed between August and November 2022 to investigate mammal occurrence and habitat use in Shenzhen, a rapidly urbanizing megacity in south China. Single-season occupancy models were constructed to determine how species occupancy varied under the influence of habitat structure (vegetation cover and distance to rivers), human disturbance (nighttime light) and species interactions (free-ranging pet cats) on site scale in a typical urban region. A total of 10 species of terrestrial mammal (4 orders, 10 families) were detected during the period of survey. The results showed that leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis), wild boars (Sus scrofa), and Chinese ferret-badgers (Melogale moschata) have relative high occupancy and detectability in the study area, while rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) have the highest detectability rate with very low occupancy. Other mammals species exhibit medium to low occupancy and detectability. Vegetation cover is the most weighted factor in the occupancy models of the leopard cats, Chinese ferret-badgers, Indian civets (Viverricula indica), and Pallas’s squirrels (Callosciurus erythraeus). Distance to rivers exerts a stronger impact on the site occupancy of Malayan porcupines (Hystrix brachyura) compared to other species. Pallas’s squirrels and Chinese ferret-badgers present high tolerance to disturbance from human activities, since there is a slightly positive correlation between their site occupancy and nighttime light. The results of two-species occupancy modeling show that both Pallas’s squirrels and hog badgers (Arctonyx collaris) are less likely to co-occur with free-ranging pet cats. The spatial distribution of free-ranging pet cats and other 5 species including leopard cats, however, tend to overlap within the study area. Such an overlap could intensify habitat encroachment and resource competition which may pose a threat to urban wildlife. Our findings underscore the complexity of mammals’ response to anthropogenic features in urban areas, taxa-specific or even species-specific needs should be considered when formulating the ecological-based conservation and management strategies of urban biodiversity.

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Species identification of zokors in the east of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau based on both morphology and DNA barcoding

Zhenyuan CAI, Hongying KONG, Zhenbang HE, Pengfei SONG, Fan GUO, Bin LI, Chengbo LIANG, Tianshi HU, Bo XU, Zhongyuan LIN, Tongzuo ZHANG

2026, 46(1):  116-128.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150993

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Species classification and identification constitute the cornerstone of biological research. Integrating DNA barcoding with classical taxonomic approaches can enhance the reliability of species identification. In this study, the traditional morphology and mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (Cyt b) sequence were employed to identify 74 zokor samples collected from Ping’an District, Haidong City, Qinghai Province, on the eastern of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Based on skull morphology, individuals with sparsely coated short white hair on the tail (Pac) were identified as Eospalax cansus, whereas those with densely haired tail (Pab) were identified as Eospalax baileyi. A total of 25 Cyt b haplotypes were defined among the 74 specimens. Phylogenetic analysis based on Cyt b gene sequences of eight zokor species from GenBank showed that each species formed a well-supported monophyletic clade. The 16 haplotypes of Pab and the eight haplotypes of Pac from Ping’an District clustered within the clades of E. baileyi and E. cansu, respectively. The genetic distance between Pac and E. cansus was significantly smaller than that between Pac and other species (P < 0.001), and similarly, the distance between Pab and E. baileyi was smaller than that between Pab and other species (P < 0.001). The Cyt b identification results were consistent with those from skull morphology, confirming that the mitochondrial Cyt b is an effective DNA barcode candidate for Myospalacinae. Morphological and DNA barcoding results indicate that, two species, E. baileyi and E. cansus, are distributed in Ping’an District. Geographically, E. cansus occurs mainly at relatively low altitudes in the north, closer to the Loess Plateau, while E. baileyi is found at higher altitudes in the south, nearer the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. This study improves our understanding of zokor species composition and distribution in Ping’an District, and provides a solution to the challenges of morphological identification in zokors through DNA barcoding.

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Preliminary analysis of the molecular phylogeography of Crocidura shantungensis

Qiuying GUO, He CAI, Liuqing YANG, Zhihui ZHANG, Meifeng HAN, Jingyu ZHAO, Chunfeng ZHANG, Junsheng ZHANG, Zhu LIU

2026, 46(1):  129-139.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.150949

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In order to clarify the phylogeographic relationships, refuge during the ice age, and subspecies differentiation of Crocidura shantungensis, the complete sequence of Cyt b gene of C. shantungensis collected from the eastern and northern regions of China, complemented with sequences available from GenBank, were analyzed together, totaling 297 sequences. A total of 128 haplotypes were found in the 297 samples of C. shandongensis. Nucleotide diversity is 0.010 77. The phylogenetic tree shows four main clades. Clade 1 includes East Asian individuals and is mainly composed of haplotypes from the eastern and northern regions of China (Heilongjiang, Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, Shandong, Inner Mongolia), Russia Far East, eastern Mongolia, Korean Peninsula and Republic of Korea islands. Clade 2 includes some haplotypes from Taiwan, China. Clade 3 includes haplotypes partly from the Republic of Korea islands. Clade 4 includes some haplotypes from the Jeju-do Island in Republic of Korea. A similar geographical pattern was also observed in the Median-joining network analysis. The largest genetic distance (0.020 6) occurred between Taiwan of China and the Republic of Korea islands, and the largest genetic differentiation (0.758 8) occurred between Taiwan of China and the Jeju-do Island in Republic of Korea. The smallest genetic distance (0.010 8) and genetic differentiation (0.272 2) occurred between East Asia and Taiwan of China. Neutral tests indicate C. shantungensis experienced two population expansions. The results of the Median-joining network suggest that the ice age refuges of C. shantungensis were Changbaishan Mountains (Heilongjiang and Liaoning) and Shandong Peninsula (Shandong) of China, and the Korean Peninsula. The geographic areas included in this study are divided into 4 geographic subspecies. One subspecies (C. s. shantungensis) is distributed in the eastern and northern regions of China (Heilongjiang, Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, Shandong, Inner Mongolia), Russia Far East, eastern Mongolia, Korean Peninsula and Republic of Korea islands. The other subspecies is found in Taiwan, China. The third subspecies is found in the Republic of Korea islands, and the fourth subspecies (C. s. quelpartis) is found in Jeju-do Island in Republic of Korea.

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A new family of mammals recorded in Xizang: Sicistidae

Yingxun LIU, Buqing PENG, Xuming WANG, Rui LIAO, Xuan PAN, Shaoying LIU

2026, 46(1):  140-147.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151005

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In August 2023, one specimen was collected from Chentang Town, Dingjie County, Xizang Autonomous Region. Dorsally, the hair of this specimen is dark yellowish-brown, interspersed with short black hair, with no black stripes seen along the back. The ventral hair is light yellowish-brown, and markedly distinct from the dorsal color. The tail is longer than head-and-body length and exhibits distinct dorsal and ventral color. The ears are short and round, covered with thick, short, chocolate-colored hair. Its anterior palatine foramina are shorter, extending backwards only to the level of the middle of the premolar, and the posterior edge of the palate is closely aligned to the third upper posterior molar. The second upper molar teeth are of the same length and width, and have an overall square shape. These characteristics are consistent with those of the type specimen of Sicista concolor leathemi, as are the 4 body measurements and 10 skull measurements. Thus, the morphological traits indicate that the Xizang specimen is Sicista concolor leathemi. A phylogenetic analysis based on Cyt b sequences confirmed that the Xizang individual clusters together with other specimens of S. c. leathemi with strong support (PP = 0.95). The average K2P distance between the specimen and other species of Sicista was 22.9%. We recovered significant differences between Sicista concolor leathemi and the other two subspecies of Sicista concolor. Based on these results, we recognize Sicista leathemi as an independent species. This represents the first record of the family Sicistidae in Xizang.

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一个模式标本的再发现及其对飞鼠属分类的意义

SUZUKI Kei K, YASUDA Masatoshi, KAWADA Shin-ichiro

2026, 46(1):  148-152.  DOI: 10.16829/j.slxb.151000

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